Chapter 1: The Science of BiologyLong Questions with Answers

Biology is closely linked with other natural sciences. These connections help us understand life processes, environmental interactions and the complexities of living organisms.

Biophysics (Physics)

The study of the principles of Physics which apply to biological processes, e.g. the rules of lever and motion to understand muscles, bones and joints.

Biochemistry (Chemistry)

The study of the structure and reactions of chemical substances in living systems, e.g. the reactions of photosynthesis and respiration.

Biostatistics (Statistics)

The principles of statistics used to analyse and interpret data related to living organisms; crucial in research, healthcare and public health.

Biogeography (Geography)

The study of the distribution of living organisms in different geographical regions, and the influence of climate change on it.

Bio-economics (Economics)

The study of organisms from an economical point of view; the cost and profit of biological projects, e.g. new crop varieties.

Computational Biology (Computer Science)

Mathematical models, algorithms and computer simulations to understand biological systems, e.g. analysing the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

After FSc with Biology, students can select further studies for diverse careers:

Health professions

Agriculture and animals

Science and technology

Science is a collaborative field in which researchers from various disciplines work together to solve complex problems. Interdisciplinary teams tackle problems more efficiently by leveraging the strengths of each discipline, often leading to quicker and sustainable solutions.

Human Genome Project

Aimed to sequence and map the human genome; completed in 2003; involved molecular biology, genetics, informatics and computer science.

Climate change research

Needs atmospheric science, ecology, economics and sociology together.

Medical research

Cancer research involves oncologists, biologists, biochemists, geneticists, pharmacologists and statisticians.

Robotics and Artificial Intelligence

Combines computer science, engineering, mathematics, neuroscience and psychology; gave robotic systems, autonomous vehicles, machine learning and natural language processing.

Space exploration

NASA and the International Space Station join astrophysics, planetary science, engineering, Biology and medicine to investigate the cosmos.

Hypothesis

A tentative answer to a scientific problem, based on observations. Experiments test it; the incorrect hypotheses are rejected and the proved one is accepted.

Theory

When experiments prove a hypothesis correct, scientists use it for making further hypotheses. When new hypotheses are again proved by experiments, the original hypothesis becomes a theory. A theory is supported by extensive evidence and repeatedly validated by many researchers, e.g. the theory of evolution.

Law or principle

Scientists keep on testing the theory and try their best to disprove it. If a theory is proved again and again by experiments, it becomes a law or principle. A scientific law is a uniform or constant fact of nature, e.g. Hardy–Weinberg law, Mendel's laws of inheritance.

1. Recognition of a problem

Identifying and defining the scientific problem to investigate, e.g. "What factors make these plants grow taller?"

2. Observations

Using the five senses and earlier research; observations are qualitative (colour) or quantitative (number), the latter more accurate.

3. Hypothesis

A tentative answer that matches the observations, can be tested and can be disproved.

4. Deduction

Logical "if–then" results of the hypothesis.

5. Experiments

The most basic step: experimental and control groups test the deductions; wrong hypotheses are rejected.

6. Results

Data are analysed with statistics and graphs, published in journals and presented at seminars.

Laveran: the cause

In 1878 (book), the French army physician Laveran examined the blood of a malarial patient under a microscope and noticed microorganisms, named Plasmodium. Scientists then hypothesised "Plasmodium is the cause of malaria"; examining 100 patients and 100 healthy persons showed most patients had Plasmodium.

A. F. A. King: the carrier

In 1883 King listed 20 observations (people outdoors got more malaria; nets and smoky fires protected) and suggested the hypothesis: "Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium and so are involved in the spread of malaria."

Ronald Ross: the proof in birds

The British army physician Ross, in India, found Plasmodium multiplying in the stomach of an Anopheles mosquito that had bitten a patient. Using sparrows and Culex mosquitoes, he showed Plasmodium moves to the mosquito's salivary glands and infects healthy sparrows.

Italian biologists: the proof in man

In 1898, Italian biologists let an Anopheles mosquito bite a malarial patient and then a healthy man, who became ill with malaria. It was confirmed that mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium.

Background

King's deduction: "If mosquitoes are involved in the spread of malaria, then Plasmodium should be present in mosquitoes." Ronald Ross, a British army physician working in India, tested it.

Experiment 1: mosquito and patient

He allowed a female Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient. He killed this mosquito and found Plasmodium multiplying in its stomach.

Experiment 2: sparrows and Culex

Using humans would be risky, so he allowed female Culex mosquitoes to bite a sparrow suffering from malaria. He studied the mosquitoes at different times: Plasmodium multiplied in the walls of the stomach and then moved into the salivary glands. He allowed infected mosquitoes to bite healthy sparrows; these sparrows got malaria, and their blood had many Plasmodia.

Conclusion

It proved the hypothesis: mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium, so mosquitoes are involved in the spread of malaria.

Biology

Biology is the science of life; "bios" = life, "logos" = study.

Major fields

Zoology (animals), Botany (plants), Microbiology (microorganisms such as bacteria and microscopic fungi).

Branches

Hypothesis

A tentative answer of a scientific problem, which matches the observations, can be tested and can be disproved.

Deduction

The logical result of a hypothesis in "if–then" form, which can be tested.

Experiments

In a successful experiment one hypothesis is proved correct and the alternate hypotheses are proved incorrect. Two settings are arranged:

If photosynthesis stops only in the experimental group, the need of CO₂ is proved. The control group shows that any change is due to the tested factor alone.

In the Holy Quran there are several verses that highlight concepts of Biology and encourage exploring and reflecting on the study of life.

Origin of life in water

"We made every living thing from water." (Al-Anbiya, 30) All organisms contain 60%–90% water, hinting at a common origin in water.

Creation of man

"He created man from clay like the potter." (Al-Rehman, 14) and "Then fashioned We the drop a clot, … then clothed the bones with flesh." (Al-Mominoon, 14) describe the stages of human development.

Variety of animals

"Allah hath created every animal from water. Then some of them creep upon their bellies, others walk on two legs, and others on four." (Al-Noor, 45) Early life arose in water (fishes), then animals with limbs appeared.

Problem 1: cause of malaria

Observations: marshes, quinine, marsh water harmless, Plasmodium in patients' blood (Laveran). Hypothesis: Plasmodium causes malaria. Deduction: all patients should have Plasmodium. Experiment: blood of 100 patients (experimental) and 100 healthy (control) examined. Result: most patients had Plasmodium; hypothesis true.

Problem 2: entry of Plasmodium into man

Observations (King 1883): outdoors, nets, smoky fires. Hypothesis: mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium. Deduction: Plasmodium should be present in mosquitoes. Experiments: Ross (sparrows, Culex); Italian biologists 1898 (man, Anopheles). Result: mosquitoes spread malaria.